A Crash Course on Theory and Lenses

In a previous post (linked above), I had gone over some of the basics of film and literary analysis, covering the topics of semiotics, rhetoric, genre, and the basics of literary theories. In this post, I'd like to dive a little more thoroughly into the types of critical theories (or lenses), giving an overview of how they work, what they're for, and some of the most common theories applied to media analysis.

What is Theory in Film?

A theory might bring to mind the idea of something to prove, or an idea someone has. Saying you have a theory about how or why something happened is correct, but more in line with the scientific sense of the word 'theory'. In art and media analysis, a theory is a little different, here more-so meaning a set of assumptions and principles you'd be putting a work through in order to evaluate it. So, essentially, a theory in this case is more like a set of criteria, or guidelines we follow to determine whether or not a work is functional or dysfunctional.

The kind of theory is where things can get tricky, as no two theories will be evaluating the work in the same way as one another, and there are plenty of theories out there. Generally speaking, films have intended meanings, given to them by their creators, but tons of unintended meanings, which people derive from engaging with the work. A movie's director might have meant to tell a gripping psycho-sexual exploration of maternity, but someone applying a Marxist critical theory would be able to see unintended meanings, such as the way in which maternity is commodified or used to keep women stuck in a capitalistic model, as an example.

Like we went over in that previous post, the meaning you derive from a work is a part of the process of communication. A Marxist theory read and a Feminist theory read may well intersect at several points, but they're ultimately looking at different things entirely. A lot of this is going to make a lot more sense when we start diving into what these theories are, how they prove themselves, and how you may even have been using these theories without even knowing it!

Auteur Theory

This is a fairly old-school theory and is the subject of much debate. I'll probably end up doing a post on the Death of the Author at some point, but without getting too into the weeds, auteur theory is a theory that is based on the premise that every work of art is, in some way, an intentional reflection of the creator's worldview, circumstances, beliefs, or ideals.

Questions like, 'what was Kubrick trying to do here', or 'why do you think Hitchcock wanted us to focus on that' are common when applying this theory. It pre-supposes that the author has an intense degree of control over a project, or in some cases how that lack of control may manifest itself. This is extremely useful for identifying the commonalities of the films of very iconic or stylistic directors, but gets tricky when it assumes that only the author's intent is important.

Ethical Critique Theory

Ethical critique theory is the idea that works of art are (or should be) evaluated based on what impact they have on the society in which they are created. This supposes that the purpose of art is instructive, and has a degree of moral responsibility, or that works which take morals and values seriously are - in general - superior works.

The most simple example I can think of would be Aesop fables. These are very simple, basic stories that have the singular goal of teaching a lesson. From an ethical critique standpoint, these are ultimately better works of art than many other kinds of stories because they are clear, direct, and socially valuable. This is not to say that someone applying ethical critique theory wants their media to be simple, bare-bones, or preachy, but that they would like to see works that have a profound or socially relevent moral, or at least for works to avoid espousing harmful or dangerous ideals.

Feminist Critical Theory

This theory is focused on how a work portrays the experiences (lived or imagined) and power dynamics surrounding the subject of gender and sexuality. Much like the broader umbrella of feminism, this theory is not concerned purely with women, but in how gender, identity, and sexuality play a role in motivating behavior and social dynamics.

For example, the film The Lighthouse features no female characters, but is ripe for a discussion utilizing the feminist critical theory, as it is chock-full of ruminations on and visceral depictions of toxic masculinity, or the ways in which men, especially isolated from women, behave and adjust. Pressure is a central theme to the film, and while it has dozens of possible interpretations, a feminist read of the film is the one I tend to see as the strongnest, and it features only two heterosexual cis men.

Marxist Theory

A theory that is ultimately concerned with how a work portrays power dynamics in human constructed society, especially in terms of exploitation, and always as the subject of class. It is, of course, derived from the workings of Karl Marx. This theory, I would say, is especially popular right now, as widening wealth gaps and clear division between the extremely wealthy and the poor working class is more visible than ever before.

A Marxist read is not always interested in rooting out corruption and evil, but oftentimes about finding ways in which works of art further explain the systems we exist inside of. An interesting use of the Marxist critical theory I once saw was its application on the film, Ratatouille. I've always seen it as a film that is about the innate talent people have, and that no matter who or what you are, you are capable of being great. However, a Marxist read may be a bit more fixated on the nature of stealing as a major plot point in the movie. Remi is a rat, and at first he steals food before he is given access to a kitchen by the humans, his benefactors, and every instance of Remi stealing is viewed very unfavorably. A Marxist critical read might assert that Remi has no reason to feel bad about stealing, as he is unilaterally denied access to food which he needs to survive, and this mirrors a capitalist systemm: in order to get resources, you must first prove your worth to those who have the resources. It's not one that I find to be satisfying to me, but it's nonetheless a very interesting and valid read of a work of art, utilizing the theory.

Narrative Critique

Narrative critique is a theory that works to identify universal themes, and how audiences interact with those themes by following a narrative. This is my personal favorite theory and the one I apply to the majority of films. It has a high degree of transfer (being able to apply fairly seamlessly to most movies). I'll almost certainly dive deeper into this theory more deeply in time, but essentially this style of critique asserts that there are four components to narrative, and the stronger each of these is, the stronger the film is. These four components are:

Progress: A story needs to progress, change, and develop. Things, essentially, shouldn't be the same at the end of the movie as they were in the beginning of the movie.

Chronology: Or 'timelline'. Essentially, we the audience need to be able to understand when, in relation to other things, what we are seeing is happening. Sometimes this is deliberately obfuscated or manipulated to set the tone, which would still be considered a strength.

Relation: Could also be called cause and effect. Essentially, things need to have understandable cause and effect relations. We need to understand when a character says something, why they said it, and what happens as the result of what they've said.

Theme: The last and most important element of narrative is the theme. A strong theme or presence of multiple strong themes ensures that a work used its narrative to explore deeper, more interesting concepts, and how the audience deconstructs that theme versus whatever may have been intended is the major thrust and appeal of this critical theory.

Psychoanalytic Theory

Based on the psychoanalytic theory of psychology developed by Sigmun Freud, assessing elements of repression, desire, the unconscious, and dreams. Psychoanalytic theory applied to the minds of people is pretty much voodoo, but when applied to fictional narratives is actually quite interesting, and while it has its roots in Freud, as a theory it has developed and expanded to include other psychological schools of thoughts and behavior pattern assessment.

The best example I can think of a movie that is better when psychoanalytic theory is applied to it is the film Chronicle. I fully intend to write a much larger post about the film and the ways it explores these themes, but it can easily be read as an assessment of the balancing of the id, ego, and superego, and how both repression and psychosexual development lead to behaviors could manifest, either as maturity or as child-like violence. This theory is quite fascinating, but is naturally not very common amongst most literary scholars.

Structuralist Theory

This is a more modern theory that is fixated on the way in which a film is actually constructed. The technical elements that go into the design and execution of a work. A structuralist is less concerned about what a movie says, and are more concerned with how the movie communicates in the first place. Editing, camera-work, direction, lighting, and individual performances, when balanced together well is the focus of this theory, and that a good movie is ultimately a well made movie.

It's hard to think of a better example for a structuralist read than Top Gun Maverick. This is an exceedingly simple movie with paper-thin morals, a healthy amount of pride (one man's nationalism is another's patriotism), but just about everything about the composition and creation of the film is rock solid. Characters, ideas, scenes, and elements are set up and paid off with expert precision, and the editing is constantly on point.